Based on kernel version 6.11
. Page generated on 2024-09-24 08:21 EST
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 | Using the initial RAM disk (initrd) =================================== Written 1996,2000 by Werner Almesberger <werner.almesberger@epfl.ch> and Hans Lermen <lermen@fgan.de> initrd provides the capability to load a RAM disk by the boot loader. This RAM disk can then be mounted as the root file system and programs can be run from it. Afterwards, a new root file system can be mounted from a different device. The previous root (from initrd) is then moved to a directory and can be subsequently unmounted. initrd is mainly designed to allow system startup to occur in two phases, where the kernel comes up with a minimum set of compiled-in drivers, and where additional modules are loaded from initrd. This document gives a brief overview of the use of initrd. A more detailed discussion of the boot process can be found in [#f1]_. Operation --------- When using initrd, the system typically boots as follows: 1) the boot loader loads the kernel and the initial RAM disk 2) the kernel converts initrd into a "normal" RAM disk and frees the memory used by initrd 3) if the root device is not ``/dev/ram0``, the old (deprecated) change_root procedure is followed. see the "Obsolete root change mechanism" section below. 4) root device is mounted. if it is ``/dev/ram0``, the initrd image is then mounted as root 5) /sbin/init is executed (this can be any valid executable, including shell scripts; it is run with uid 0 and can do basically everything init can do). 6) init mounts the "real" root file system 7) init places the root file system at the root directory using the pivot_root system call 8) init execs the ``/sbin/init`` on the new root filesystem, performing the usual boot sequence 9) the initrd file system is removed Note that changing the root directory does not involve unmounting it. It is therefore possible to leave processes running on initrd during that procedure. Also note that file systems mounted under initrd continue to be accessible. Boot command-line options ------------------------- initrd adds the following new options:: initrd=<path> (e.g. LOADLIN) Loads the specified file as the initial RAM disk. When using LILO, you have to specify the RAM disk image file in /etc/lilo.conf, using the INITRD configuration variable. noinitrd initrd data is preserved but it is not converted to a RAM disk and the "normal" root file system is mounted. initrd data can be read from /dev/initrd. Note that the data in initrd can have any structure in this case and doesn't necessarily have to be a file system image. This option is used mainly for debugging. Note: /dev/initrd is read-only and it can only be used once. As soon as the last process has closed it, all data is freed and /dev/initrd can't be opened anymore. root=/dev/ram0 initrd is mounted as root, and the normal boot procedure is followed, with the RAM disk mounted as root. Compressed cpio images ---------------------- Recent kernels have support for populating a ramdisk from a compressed cpio archive. On such systems, the creation of a ramdisk image doesn't need to involve special block devices or loopbacks; you merely create a directory on disk with the desired initrd content, cd to that directory, and run (as an example):: find . | cpio --quiet -H newc -o | gzip -9 -n > /boot/imagefile.img Examining the contents of an existing image file is just as simple:: mkdir /tmp/imagefile cd /tmp/imagefile gzip -cd /boot/imagefile.img | cpio -imd --quiet Installation ------------ First, a directory for the initrd file system has to be created on the "normal" root file system, e.g.:: # mkdir /initrd The name is not relevant. More details can be found on the :manpage:`pivot_root(2)` man page. If the root file system is created during the boot procedure (i.e. if you're building an install floppy), the root file system creation procedure should create the ``/initrd`` directory. If initrd will not be mounted in some cases, its content is still accessible if the following device has been created:: # mknod /dev/initrd b 1 250 # chmod 400 /dev/initrd Second, the kernel has to be compiled with RAM disk support and with support for the initial RAM disk enabled. Also, at least all components needed to execute programs from initrd (e.g. executable format and file system) must be compiled into the kernel. Third, you have to create the RAM disk image. This is done by creating a file system on a block device, copying files to it as needed, and then copying the content of the block device to the initrd file. With recent kernels, at least three types of devices are suitable for that: - a floppy disk (works everywhere but it's painfully slow) - a RAM disk (fast, but allocates physical memory) - a loopback device (the most elegant solution) We'll describe the loopback device method: 1) make sure loopback block devices are configured into the kernel 2) create an empty file system of the appropriate size, e.g.:: # dd if=/dev/zero of=initrd bs=300k count=1 # mke2fs -F -m0 initrd (if space is critical, you may want to use the Minix FS instead of Ext2) 3) mount the file system, e.g.:: # mount -t ext2 -o loop initrd /mnt 4) create the console device:: # mkdir /mnt/dev # mknod /mnt/dev/console c 5 1 5) copy all the files that are needed to properly use the initrd environment. Don't forget the most important file, ``/sbin/init`` .. note:: ``/sbin/init`` permissions must include "x" (execute). 6) correct operation the initrd environment can frequently be tested even without rebooting with the command:: # chroot /mnt /sbin/init This is of course limited to initrds that do not interfere with the general system state (e.g. by reconfiguring network interfaces, overwriting mounted devices, trying to start already running demons, etc. Note however that it is usually possible to use pivot_root in such a chroot'ed initrd environment.) 7) unmount the file system:: # umount /mnt 8) the initrd is now in the file "initrd". Optionally, it can now be compressed:: # gzip -9 initrd For experimenting with initrd, you may want to take a rescue floppy and only add a symbolic link from ``/sbin/init`` to ``/bin/sh``. Alternatively, you can try the experimental newlib environment [#f2]_ to create a small initrd. Finally, you have to boot the kernel and load initrd. Almost all Linux boot loaders support initrd. Since the boot process is still compatible with an older mechanism, the following boot command line parameters have to be given:: root=/dev/ram0 rw (rw is only necessary if writing to the initrd file system.) With LOADLIN, you simply execute:: LOADLIN <kernel> initrd=<disk_image> e.g.:: LOADLIN C:\LINUX\BZIMAGE initrd=C:\LINUX\INITRD.GZ root=/dev/ram0 rw With LILO, you add the option ``INITRD=<path>`` to either the global section or to the section of the respective kernel in ``/etc/lilo.conf``, and pass the options using APPEND, e.g.:: image = /bzImage initrd = /boot/initrd.gz append = "root=/dev/ram0 rw" and run ``/sbin/lilo`` For other boot loaders, please refer to the respective documentation. Now you can boot and enjoy using initrd. Changing the root device ------------------------ When finished with its duties, init typically changes the root device and proceeds with starting the Linux system on the "real" root device. The procedure involves the following steps: - mounting the new root file system - turning it into the root file system - removing all accesses to the old (initrd) root file system - unmounting the initrd file system and de-allocating the RAM disk Mounting the new root file system is easy: it just needs to be mounted on a directory under the current root. Example:: # mkdir /new-root # mount -o ro /dev/hda1 /new-root The root change is accomplished with the pivot_root system call, which is also available via the ``pivot_root`` utility (see :manpage:`pivot_root(8)` man page; ``pivot_root`` is distributed with util-linux version 2.10h or higher [#f3]_). ``pivot_root`` moves the current root to a directory under the new root, and puts the new root at its place. The directory for the old root must exist before calling ``pivot_root``. Example:: # cd /new-root # mkdir initrd # pivot_root . initrd Now, the init process may still access the old root via its executable, shared libraries, standard input/output/error, and its current root directory. All these references are dropped by the following command:: # exec chroot . what-follows <dev/console >dev/console 2>&1 Where what-follows is a program under the new root, e.g. ``/sbin/init`` If the new root file system will be used with udev and has no valid ``/dev`` directory, udev must be initialized before invoking chroot in order to provide ``/dev/console``. Note: implementation details of pivot_root may change with time. In order to ensure compatibility, the following points should be observed: - before calling pivot_root, the current directory of the invoking process should point to the new root directory - use . as the first argument, and the _relative_ path of the directory for the old root as the second argument - a chroot program must be available under the old and the new root - chroot to the new root afterwards - use relative paths for dev/console in the exec command Now, the initrd can be unmounted and the memory allocated by the RAM disk can be freed:: # umount /initrd # blockdev --flushbufs /dev/ram0 It is also possible to use initrd with an NFS-mounted root, see the :manpage:`pivot_root(8)` man page for details. Usage scenarios --------------- The main motivation for implementing initrd was to allow for modular kernel configuration at system installation. The procedure would work as follows: 1) system boots from floppy or other media with a minimal kernel (e.g. support for RAM disks, initrd, a.out, and the Ext2 FS) and loads initrd 2) ``/sbin/init`` determines what is needed to (1) mount the "real" root FS (i.e. device type, device drivers, file system) and (2) the distribution media (e.g. CD-ROM, network, tape, ...). This can be done by asking the user, by auto-probing, or by using a hybrid approach. 3) ``/sbin/init`` loads the necessary kernel modules 4) ``/sbin/init`` creates and populates the root file system (this doesn't have to be a very usable system yet) 5) ``/sbin/init`` invokes ``pivot_root`` to change the root file system and execs - via chroot - a program that continues the installation 6) the boot loader is installed 7) the boot loader is configured to load an initrd with the set of modules that was used to bring up the system (e.g. ``/initrd`` can be modified, then unmounted, and finally, the image is written from ``/dev/ram0`` or ``/dev/rd/0`` to a file) 8) now the system is bootable and additional installation tasks can be performed The key role of initrd here is to re-use the configuration data during normal system operation without requiring the use of a bloated "generic" kernel or re-compiling or re-linking the kernel. A second scenario is for installations where Linux runs on systems with different hardware configurations in a single administrative domain. In such cases, it is desirable to generate only a small set of kernels (ideally only one) and to keep the system-specific part of configuration information as small as possible. In this case, a common initrd could be generated with all the necessary modules. Then, only ``/sbin/init`` or a file read by it would have to be different. A third scenario is more convenient recovery disks, because information like the location of the root FS partition doesn't have to be provided at boot time, but the system loaded from initrd can invoke a user-friendly dialog and it can also perform some sanity checks (or even some form of auto-detection). Last not least, CD-ROM distributors may use it for better installation from CD, e.g. by using a boot floppy and bootstrapping a bigger RAM disk via initrd from CD; or by booting via a loader like ``LOADLIN`` or directly from the CD-ROM, and loading the RAM disk from CD without need of floppies. Obsolete root change mechanism ------------------------------ The following mechanism was used before the introduction of pivot_root. Current kernels still support it, but you should _not_ rely on its continued availability. It works by mounting the "real" root device (i.e. the one set with rdev in the kernel image or with root=... at the boot command line) as the root file system when linuxrc exits. The initrd file system is then unmounted, or, if it is still busy, moved to a directory ``/initrd``, if such a directory exists on the new root file system. In order to use this mechanism, you do not have to specify the boot command options root, init, or rw. (If specified, they will affect the real root file system, not the initrd environment.) If /proc is mounted, the "real" root device can be changed from within linuxrc by writing the number of the new root FS device to the special file /proc/sys/kernel/real-root-dev, e.g.:: # echo 0x301 >/proc/sys/kernel/real-root-dev Note that the mechanism is incompatible with NFS and similar file systems. This old, deprecated mechanism is commonly called ``change_root``, while the new, supported mechanism is called ``pivot_root``. Mixed change_root and pivot_root mechanism ------------------------------------------ In case you did not want to use ``root=/dev/ram0`` to trigger the pivot_root mechanism, you may create both ``/linuxrc`` and ``/sbin/init`` in your initrd image. ``/linuxrc`` would contain only the following:: #! /bin/sh mount -n -t proc proc /proc echo 0x0100 >/proc/sys/kernel/real-root-dev umount -n /proc Once linuxrc exited, the kernel would mount again your initrd as root, this time executing ``/sbin/init``. Again, it would be the duty of this init to build the right environment (maybe using the ``root= device`` passed on the cmdline) before the final execution of the real ``/sbin/init``. Resources --------- .. [#f1] Almesberger, Werner; "Booting Linux: The History and the Future" https://www.almesberger.net/cv/papers/ols2k-9.ps.gz .. [#f2] newlib package (experimental), with initrd example https://www.sourceware.org/newlib/ .. [#f3] util-linux: Miscellaneous utilities for Linux https://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/utils/util-linux/ |